Drainage System of India

A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’. An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin. The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is known as the watershed. The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and rills are often referred to as watersheds. There is, however, a slight difference between a river basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small in area while the basins cover larger areas.

On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics, the Indian drainage may also be classified into the Himalayan drainage and the peninsular drainage.

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE:

It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11, 65,000 sq. km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km and a total length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km).

The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu (31°15' N latitude and 81°40' E longitude) in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the Kailash Mountain range.The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir.

According to the regulations of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can use only 20 per cent of the total water carried by Indus river system. This water is used for irrigation in the Punjab, Haryana and the southern and western parts of Rajasthan.

            The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge.

            The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. The river flows for 1,180 km before entering into Pakistan.

            The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley of the state.

            The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level. The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harike.

            The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet where it is known as Langchen Khambab. It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It is an antecedent river. It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.

The Ganga System:

            The Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar join it at Karna Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag. The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting into two distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by Uttaranchal (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal (520 km). The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India alone. The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar Island.

            The Sundarban Delta derived its name from the Sundari tree which grows well in marshland. It is the world’s largest and fastest growing delta. It is also the home of Royal Bengal tiger.

            The Yamuna, the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank which originates from the Peninsular plateau while the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank. Much of its water feeds the western and eastern Yamuna and the Agra canals for irrigation purposes.

            The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has been constructed. From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna. The Chambal is famous for its badland topography called the Chambal ravines.

            The Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.

            The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a rift valley and finally joins the Hugli. The Barakar is its main tributary. Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’.

            The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga rising in the Darjiling hills. It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.

The Brahmaputra System:

            The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers of the world, has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it traverses eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier.’ The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of this river in Tibet. It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m). The river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing southwest, it receives its main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as the Brahmaputra. The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Yamuna. It finally merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.

THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM:

            The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs through Orissa to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq. km. Fifty three per cent of the drainage basin of this river lies in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent lies in Orissa.

            The Godavari is the largest peninsular river system. It is also called the Dakshin Ganga. It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. It is 1,465 km long with a catchment area spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km. 49 per cent of this, lies in Maharashtra, 20 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and the rest in Andhra Pradesh. The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are its principal tributaries.

            The Krishna is the second largest east flowing Peninsular River which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total length is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and the Bhima are its major tributaries. Of the total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per cent lies in Maharashtra, 44 per cent in Karnataka and 29 per cent in Andhra Pradesh.

            The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Its length is 800 km and it drains an area of 81,155 sq. km. About 3 per cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent in Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil Nadu. Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.
The river Kaveri makes the second biggest waterfall in India. It is known as Sivasamudram. The fall supplies hydroelectric power to Mysore, Bangalore and the Kolar Gold Field.

            The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height of about 1,057 m. flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the north; it forms a picturesque gorge in marble rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur. After flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets the Arabian Sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long estuary. Its catchment area is about 98,796 sq. km. The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.

            The Tapi is the other important westward flowing river. It originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It is 724 km long and drains an area of 65,145 sq. km. Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.

            Luni is the largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravali. It originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati and the Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes out of Aravali and is known as Luni. It flows towards the west till Telwara and then takes a southwest direction to join the Rann of Kuchchh. The entire river system is ephemeral.

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The Islands of India

1.      The Andaman & Nicobar Islands:

2.      The Lakshadweep Islands:

3.      Pamban Island:

The Andaman & Nicobar Islands:

■ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a group of islands at the juncture of the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea, and are a Union Territory of India.

■ The territory is 150 km (93 mi) north of Aceh in Indonesia and separated from Thailand and Myanmar (Burma) by the Andaman Sea.

■ It comprises two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands, separated by the 10°N parallel, with the Andamans to the north of this latitude, and the Nicobars to the south.

■ The Andaman Sea lies to the east and the Bay of Bengal to the west.

■ The territory's capital is the Andamanese town of Port Blair.

■ The total land area of the territory is approximately 8,073 km² (3,117 sq mi).

On 26 December 2004 the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were devastated by a 10 m (33 ft) high tsunami. More than 2,000 people lost their lives, more than 4,000 children were orphaned or suffered the loss of one parent, and a minimum of 40,000 people were rendered homeless. The worst affected Nicobar island were Katchal and Indira Point; the latter subsided 4.25 meters and was partially submerged in the ocean.  The lighthouse at Indira Point was damaged but has been repaired since then. The territory lost a large amount of area which is now submerged. The territory which was at 8,073 km2 (3,117 sq mi) is now merely at 7,950 km2 (3,070 sq mi).While newer settlers of the islands suffered the greatest casualties from the tsunami, most of the aboriginal people survived because oral traditions passed down from generations ago warned them to evacuate from large waves that follow large earthquakes

■ The capital of Nicobar Islands is Car Nicobar. The islands host the Andaman and 

■ Nicobar Command, the only tri-service geographical command of the Indian Armed Forces.

■ The Andaman Islands are home to the only known paleolithic people, the Sentinelese people, who have had no contact with any other people.

■ The Nicobar Islands appear to have been populated by people of various backgrounds.

 At the time of the European contact, the indigenous inhabitants were the Nicobarese people, speaking a Mon-Khmer language; and the Shompen, whose language is of uncertain affiliation. Both are unrelated to the Andamanese.

■ The history of organised European colonisation on the islands began when the Danish settlers of the Danish East India Company arrived in the Nicobar Islands on 12 December 1755.

■ On 1 January 1756, the Nicobar Islands were made a Danish colony, first named New Denmark, and later (December 1756) Frederick's Islands (Frederiksøerne).

■ During 1754–1756 they were administrated from Tranquebar (in continental Danish India).

■ The islands were repeatedly abandoned due to outbreaks of malaria between 14 April 1759 and 19 August 1768, from 1787 to 1807/05, 1814 to 1831, 1830 to 1834 and gradually from 1848 for good.

■ From 1 June 1778 to 1784, Austria mistakenly assumed that Denmark had abandoned its claims to the Nicobar Islands and attempted to establish a colony on them, renaming them Theresia Islands.

■ In 1789 the British set up a naval base and penal colony on Chatham Island next to Great Andaman, where now lies the town of Port Blair.

■ Two years later the colony was moved to Port Cornwallis on Great Andaman, but it was abandoned in 1796 due to disease.

■ Denmark's presence in the territory ended formally on 16 October 1868 when it sold the rights to the Nicobar Islands to Britain, which made them part of British India in 1869.

■ In 1858 the British again established a colony at Port Blair, which proved to be more permanent.

■ The primary purpose was to set up a penal colony criminal convicts from the Indian subcontinent.

■ The colony came to include the infamous Cellular Jail.

In 1872 the Andaman and Nicobar islands were united under a single chief commissioner at Port Blair.

■ During World War II, the islands were practically under Japanese control, only nominally under the authority of the Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. Bose visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as "Shaheed-dweep" (Martyr Island) and "Swaraj-dweep" (Self-rule Island).

■ It became part of the Indian country in 1950 and was also declared as a union territory in 1956.

■ India has been developing defence facilities on the islands since the 1980s.

■ The islands now have a key position in India's strategic role in the Bay of Bengal and the Malacca Strait.

■ There are 572 islands in the territory having an area of 8,073 km² (3,117 sq mi).

■ Of these, about 34 are permanently inhabited.

■ The islands extend from 6° to 14° North latitudes and from 92° to 94° East longitudes.

■ The Andamans are separated from the Nicobar group by a channel (the Ten Degree Channel) some 150 km (93 mi) wide.

■ The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle Peak at 732 m (2,402 ft)).

■ The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km² (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 24 islands with an area of 1,765 km² (681 sq mi).

■ The capital of the union territory, Port Blair, is located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata, 1,200 km (750 mi) from Visakhapatnam and 1,190 km (740 mi) from Chennai.

■ The northernmost point of the Andaman and Nicobars group is 901 km (560 mi) away from the mouth of the Hooghly River and 190 km (120 mi) from Burma.

■ Indira Point at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E at the southern tip of the southernmost island, Great Nicobar, is the southernmost point of India and lies only 150 km (93 mi) from Sumatra in Indonesia.

■ The Sentinelese population cannot be officially counted.

■ They are an uncontacted people and current government policy is not to attempt contact.

■ The population estimation is between 50–500 people.

■ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have a tropical rainforest canopy, made of a mixed flora with elements from Indian, Myanmar, Malaysian and endemic floral strains.

■ So far, about 2,200 varieties of plants have been recorded, out of which 200 are endemic and 1,300 do not occur in mainland India.

■ The South Andaman forests have a profuse growth of epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids.

■ The Middle Andamans harbours mostly moist deciduous forests.

North Andamans is characterized by the wet evergreen type, with plenty of woody climbers.

■ The North Nicobar Islands (including Car Nicobar and Battimalv) are marked by the complete absence of evergreen forests, while such forests form the dominant vegetation in the central and southern islands of the Nicobar group.

■ Grasslands occur only in the Nicobars, and while deciduous forests are common in the Andamans, they are almost absent in the Nicobars.

■ The present forest coverage is claimed to be 86.2% of the total land area.

■ This atypical forest coverage is made up of twelve types, namely:

1.             Giant evergreen forest

2.             Andamans tropical evergreen forest

3.             Southern hilltop tropical evergreen forest

4.             Cane brakes

5.             Wet bamboo brakes

6.             Andamans semi-evergreen forest

7.             Andamans moist deciduous forest

8.             Andamans secondary moist deciduous forest

9.             Littoral forest

10.          Mangrove forest

11.          Brackish water mixed forest

12.          Submontane forest

■ This tropical rain forest, despite its isolation from adjacent land masses, is surprisingly rich with a diversity of animal life.

■ About 50 varieties of forest mammals are found to occur in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Some are endemic, including the Andaman Wild Boar.

■ Rodents are the largest group with 26 species, followed by 14 species of bat.

■ Among the larger mammals there are two endemic varieties of wild boar, Sus scrofa andamanensis from Andaman and Sus scrofa nicobaricus from Nicobar, which are protected by the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (Sch I).

■ Saltwater crocodile is also found in abundance.

■ The State animal of andaman is the dugong, also known as the sea cow, which can be found in Little Andaman.

■ Around 1962 there was an attempt to introduce the leopard, which was unsuccessful because of unsuitable habitat.

■ These were ill-considered moves as exotic introductions can cause havoc to island flora and fauna.

■ About 270 species of birds are found in the territory; 14 of them are endemic, the majority to the Nicobar island group.

■ The islands' many caves are nesting grounds for the Edible-nest Swiftlet, whose nests are prized in China for bird's nest soup.

■ The territory is home to about 225 species of butterflies and moths, including some of the larger and most spectacular of the world.

■ Ten species are endemic to these Islands. Mount Harriet National Park is one of the richest areas of butterfly and moth diversity on these Islands.

■ The islands are well known for of prized shellfishs, especially from the genera Turbo, Trochus, Murex and Nautilus.

■ Earliest recorded commercial exploitation began during 1929.

■ Many cottage industries produce a range of decorative shell items. Giant clams, green mussels and oysters support edible shellfishery.

■ The shells of scallops, clams, and cockle are burnt in kilns to produce edible lime.

■ As of 2011 Census of India, the population of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands was 379,944, of which 202,330 (53.25%) were male and 177,614 (46.75) were female.

■ The sex ratio was 878 females per 1,000 males. Only 10% of the population lived in Nicobar islands.

■ The areas and populations (at the 2001 and 2011 Censuses) of the three districts  are:

Name	Area (km2)	Population Census 2001	Population Census 2011	Capital
Nicobar Islands	1,841	42,068	36,842	Car Nicobar
North and Middle Andaman	3,736	105,613	105,597	Mayabunder
South Andaman	2,672	208,471	238,142	Port Blair
Totals	8,073	356,152	380,581

■ Hindi and English are the official languages of the islands.

Bengali is the dominant language and most spoken language in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands with 70% of the population speaking Bengali, the other major languages spoken in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands are Hindi (18.23%), Tamil (17.68%), Telugu (12.81%), Malayalam (8.11%) and Nicobarese (8.05%) according to 2001 Census of India.[3] Other minor spoken languages are Kurukh/Oraon, Munda and Kharia.

■ Andaman Creole Hindi is widely used as a trade language in the Andamans.

■ Presently there remain only approximately 400–450 indigenous Andamanese in the Andaman islands, the Jarawa and Sentinelese in particular maintaining a steadfast independence and refusing most attempts at contact.

■ In the Nicobar islands, the indigenous people are the Nicobarese, or Nicobari, living throughout many of the islands; and the Shompen, restricted to the hinterland of Great Nicobar.

■ More than 2,000 people belonging to the Karen tribe live in the Mayabunder tehsil of North Andaman district, almost all of whom are Christians.

■ Despite their tribal origins, the Karen of Andamans have Other Backward Class (OBC) status in the Andamans.

■ The majority of schools and educational institutions are available in Bengali language on the islands, Tamil and Telugu languages are also used in few institutions.

■ The majority of people of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are Hindus, with significant Christian population consisting 21.7% of the total population of the Union Territory according to the 2011 census of India.

■ Small but significant Muslim and Sikh minorities also exist on the islands.

■ In 1874, the British had placed the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in one administrative territory headed by a Chief Commissioner as its judicial administrator.

■ On 1 August 1974, the Nicobar islands were hived off into another revenue district with district headquarters at Car Nicobar under a Deputy Commissioner.

■ In 1982, the post of Lieutenant Governor was created who replaced the Chief Commissioner as the head of administration.

■ Subsequently a "Pradesh council" with Counselors as representatives of the people was constituted to advise the Lieutenant Governor.

■ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is divided into three districts. Each district is sub-divided into sub-divisions and taluks:

   North and Middle Andaman

• Headquarters: Mayabunder
• Diglipur Sub-Division
• Diglipur taluk
• Mayabunder Sub-Division
• Mayabunder taluk
• Rangat taluk

   South Andaman

• Headquarters: Port Blair
• Port Blair Sub-Division
• Port Blair taluk
• Ferrargunj taluk
• Jirkatang taluk (native Jarawa reservation)
• Ritchie's Archipelago Sub-Division
• Ritchie's Archipelago taluka (Havelock Island)
• Little Andaman Sub-Division
• Little Andaman taluka (Hut Bay)

   Nicobar

• Headquarters: Car Nicobar
• Car Nicobar Sub-Division
• Car Nicobar taluk
• Nancowrie Sub-Division
• Nancowrie taluk
• Kamorta taluk
• Teressa taluk
• Katchal taluk
• Great Nicobar Sub-Division
• Great Nicobar taluk (Campbell Bay)
• Little Nicobar taluk

■ A total of 48,675 hectares (120,280 acres) of land is used for agriculture purposes.

■ Paddy, the main food crop, is mostly cultivated in Andaman group of islands, whereas coconut and arecanut are the cash crops of Nicobar group of islands.

■ Field crops, namely pulses, oilseeds and vegetables are grown, followed by paddy during Rabi season.

■ Different kinds of fruits such as mango, sapota, orange, banana, papaya, pineapple and root crops are grown on hilly land owned by farmers. Spices such as pepper, clove, nutmeg, and cinnamon are grown under a multi-tier cropping system.

■ Rubber, red oil, palm, noni and cashew are grown on a limited scale in these islands.

■ There are 1,374 registered small-scale, village and handicrafts units.

■ Two units are export-oriented in the line of fish processing activity.

■ Apart from this, there are shell and wood based handicraft units.

■ There are also four medium-sized industrial units.

■ SSI units are engaged in the production of polythene bags, PVC conduit pipes and fittings, paints and varnished, fibre glass and mini flour mills, soft drinks and beverages, etc.

■ Small scale and handicraft units are also engaged in shell crafts, bakery products, rice milling, furniture making, etc.

■ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation has spread its wings in the field of tourism, fisheries, industries and industrial financing and functions as authorised agents for Alliance Air/Jet Airways.

■ The Islands have become a tourist destination, due to the draw of their largely unspoiled virgin beaches and waters.

Andaman & Nicobar Islands are developing into a major Tourism hub with its exotic looking beaches and pristine islands having equally exotic names, wonderful opportunities for adventure sports like snorkeling and sea-walking. In Port Blair, the main places to visit are Cellular Jail, Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Andaman Water sports complex, Chatham Saw Mill, Mini Zoo, Corbyn's cove, Chidiya Tapu, Wandoor Beach, Forest Museum, Anthropological Museum, Fisheries Museum, Naval Museum (Samudrika), Ross Island and Viper Island.

■ Other places include Havelock island famous for Radhanagar Beach, Neil Island for Scuba diving/snorkelling, Cinque island, Saddle peak, Mt Harriet and Mud Volcano.

■ The southern group(Nicobar islands) is mostly inaccessible to tourists.

■ Indian tourists do not require a permit to visit the Andaman islands but if they wish to visit any tribal areas they need a special permit from the Deputy Commissioner, Port Blair.

■ Permits are required for foreign nationals.

■ For foreign nationals arriving by air, these are granted upon arrival at Port Blair.

■ According to official estimates, the flow of tourists doubled to nearly 300,000 in 2012 from 130,000 in 2008-09.

■ The Radha Nagar beach of Andamans was chosen as Asia’s best Beach in 2004.

■ This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Andaman and Nicobar Islands at market prices, estimated by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.

■ Andaman and Nicobar Islands' gross state domestic product for 2004 was estimated at $354 million in current prices.

The Sisters are two small uninhabited islands in the Andaman Archipelago, at the northern side of the Duncan Passage, about 6 km southeast of Passage Island and 18 km north of North Brother: East Sister Island (Andaman) West Sister Island (Andaman) The islands are about 250 m apart, connected by a coral reef. They are covered by forests, and have rocky shores except for a beach on the NW side of East Sister. They belong to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Territory of India. Before the British established a colony on the Andaman, the Sister islands were visited occasionally by the Onge people of Little Andaman Island for fishing. They may have been a way station for their temporary settlement of Rutland Island between 1890 and 1930. The islands have been a wildlife refuge since 1987, with 0.36 km2.

The Lakshadweep Islands:

■ Lakshadweep known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea,

■ Lakshadweep is 200 to 440 kilometres (120 to 270 mi) off the south western coast of India.

■ The archipelago is a Union Territory and is governed by the Union Government of India.

■ They were also known as Laccadive Islands, although geographically this is only the name of the central subgroup of the group.

■ Lakshadweep comes from "Lakshadweepa", which means "one hundred thousand islands" in Sanskrit .

■ The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India.

■ The total surface area is just 32 square kilometres (12 sq mi).

■ The lagoon area covers about 4,200 square kilometres (1,600 sq mi), the territorial waters area 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi) and the exclusive economic zone area 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi).

■ The region forms a single Indian district with ten sub divisions.

■ Kavaratti serves as the capital of the Union Territory and the region comes under the jurisdiction of Kerala High Court.

■ The islands are the northernmost of the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands, which are the tops of a vast undersea mountain range, the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge.

■ As the islands do not have any aboriginal groups, different views have been postulated by the scholars about the history of habitation on these islands.

■ The Portuguese arrived around 1498 and were upstaged by 1545.

■ The region was then ruled by the Muslim house of Arakkal, followed by Tipu Sultan.

■ On his death in 1799 most of the region passed on to the British and with their departure the Union Territory was formed in 1956.

■ Ten of the islands are inhabited. At the 2011 Indian census the population of the Union Territory was 64,473.

■ The majority of the indigenous population is Muslim and most of them belong to the Shafi School of the Sunni Sect.

■ The islanders are ethnically similar to the Malayali people of the nearest Indian state of Kerala.

■ Most of the population speaks Malayalam with Mahi (or Mahl) being the most spoken language in Minicoy island.

■ The islands are served by an airport on the Agatti island.

■ The main occupation of the people is fishing and coconut cultivation, with tuna being the main item of export.

■ Several views have been postulated about the history of the habitation of the islands as they do not have any aboriginal groups.

■ A mention of the region in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, by an anonymous author, is one of the earliest references.

There are references to the control of the islands by the Cheras in the Sangam literature Pathitruppaththu.

■ A Pallava inscription of 7th century AD refers to the islands as Dveepa Laksham and lists them as part of the Pallava domain.

■ Local traditions and legends attribute the first settlement on these islands to the period of Cheraman Perumal, the last Chera king of Kerala.

■ The oldest inhabited islands in the group are Amini, Kalpeni Andrott, Kavaratti and Agatti.

■  Archaeological evidence suggests that Buddhism prevailed in the region during the 5th-6th century CE.

■ According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep by an Arab named Ubaidulla in 661 CE.

■ His grave is located in the island of Andrott.

■ During the 11th century, the islands came under the rule of the Late Cholas.

■ The region then came under the Kingdom of Cannanore.

■ In the 16th century the Portuguese ruled the seas between Ormuz and the Malabar Coast -and down to Ceylon.

■ As early as 1498 they took control of the archipelago (called Laquedivas by them), later on to exploit coir production, until the islanders expelled them in 1545.

■ In the 17th century, the islands came under the rule of Ali Rajahs/Arakkal Bheevi of Kannur, who received them as a gift from the Kolathiris.

■ The islands are also mentioned in great detail in the stories of the Arab traveller Ibn Batuta.

■ The Aminidivi group of islands (Amini, Kadmat, Kiltan, Chetlath and Bitra) came under the rule of Tipu Sultan in 1787.

■ They passed to British control after the Third Anglo-Mysore War and were attached to South Canara.

■ The rest of the islands came under the suzerainty of the Arakkal family of Cannanore in return for a payment of annual tribute.

■ The British took over the administration of those islands for non-payment of arrears.

■ These islands were attached to the Malabar district of the Madras Presidency during the British Raj.

■ In 1956, during the Lakshadweep islands were organized into a separate union territory for administrative purposes.

■ To safeguard India's vital shipping lanes to the Middle East, and the growing relevance of the islands in security considerations, an Indian Navy base, INS Dweeprakshak, was commissioned on Kavaratti island.

■ Lakshadweep is an archipelago of twelve atolls, three reefs and five submerged banks, with a total of about thirty-nine islands and islets.

■ The reefs are in fact also atolls, although mostly submerged, with only small unvegetated sand cays above the high-water mark. The submerged banks are sunken atolls.

■ Almost all the atolls have a northeast-southwest orientation with the islands lying on the eastern rim, and a mostly submerged reef on the western rim, enclosing a lagoon.

■ It has 10 inhabited islands, 17 uninhabited islands, attached islets, 4 newly formed islets and 5 submerged reefs.

The main islands are Kavaratti, Agatti, Minicoy, and Amini.

■ The total population of the territory is 60,595 according to the 2001 census.

■ Agatti has an airport with direct flights from Kochi.

■ The Aminidivi group islands (consisting of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadamat, Bitra and Perumal Par) and the Laccadive group islands (comprising mainly Androth, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and Suheli Par), both have a submarine connection between them.

■ Together with Minicoy Island, located at the southern end of the 200 km broad Nine Degree Channel, they form the Coral Islands of India in the Arabian Sea.

■ All these islands have been built up by corals and have fringing coral reefs very close to their shores.

■ Two banks further north are not considered part of the group: Angria Bank And Ades Bank.

The atolls, reefs and banks are listed from north to south in the table:

Name and Alternate name	Island type	Land (km2)	Lagoon (km2)	No. Of  islets	Pop. Census 2001
Cora Divh	bank	-	339.45	-	-
Sesostris Bank	bank	-	388.53	-	-
Bassas de Pedro (Munyal Par, Padua Bank)	bank	-	2474.33	-	-
Cherbaniani Reef (Beleapani Reef)	reef	0.01	172.59	2	-
Byramgore Reef (Chereapani)	reef	0.01	57.46	1	-
Chetlat Island	atoll	1.14	1.60	1	2,289
Bitrā Island	atoll	0.10	45.61	2	264
Kiltān Island	atoll	2.20	1.76	1	3,664
Kadmat Island (Cardamom)	atoll	3.20	37.50	1	5,319
Elikalpeni Bank	bank	-	95.91	-	-
Perumal Par	reef	0.01	83.02	1	-
Amini Island 1)	atoll	2.59	155.091)	1	7,340
Agatti Island (Agatti)	atoll	2.70	4.84	1	8,000
Bangaram Island (Bangaram)	atoll	2.30	4.84	1	61
Pitti Island 1)	islet	0.01	155.09 1)	1	-
Androth Island (Andrott)	atoll	4.90	4.84	1	10,720
Kavaratti Island	atoll	4.22	4.96	1	10,113
Kalpeni Island	atoll	2.79	25.60	7	4,319
Suheli Par	atoll	0.57	78.76	2	-
Investigator Bank	bank	-	141.78	-	-
Minicoy Island	atoll	4.80	30.60	2	9,495
Lakshadweep		32.69	4203.14	32	60,595

■ The Lakshadweep Archipelago forms a terrestrial ecoregion together with the Maldives and the Chagos.

■ It has over 600 species of marine fishes, 78 species of corals, 82 species of seaweed, 52 species of crabs, 2 species of  lobsters, 48 species of gastropods, 12 species of bivalves, 101 species of birds.

■ It is one of the four coral reef regions in India.

■ The corals are a major attraction for the tourist.

■ Pitti Island, is an important breeding place for sea turtles and for a number of pelagic birds such as the brown noddy (Anous stolidus), lesser crested tern (Sterna bengalensis) and greater crested tern (Sterna bergii).

■ The island has been declared a bird sanctuary. There is also an absence of forest in the region.

■ The region does not have a rich flora and almost all the plants can be found on the mainland of India.

Nearly 400 species of flowering plants have been documented, including three species of sea grasses Cymodocia isoetifolia, Syringodium isoetifolium and Thalassia hemprichii, other angiosperms as Pandanus, Heliotropium foertherianum, Tournefortia argentea and Pemphis acidula as well as fungi, algae, lichens are also found. The common flora of the coral sands include coconut groves and coastal shrubs as Pemphis acidula, Cordia subcordata, Scaevola taccada, Thespesia populnea, Suriana maritime, Dodonaea viscosa, Guettarda speciosa and seaweeds such as sea lettuces, Codium and Hypena.

■ Lakshadweep forms a single Indian district and is governed by an administrator appointed by the President of India under article 239 of the constitution.

■ There are 10 Sub Divisions of the territory.

■ In Minicoy and Agatti the Sub Division is under a Deputy Collector while in the remaining 8 islands developmental activities are coordinated by Sub Divisional Officers.

■ Administrator in his capacity as Inspector General of Lakshadweep Police has command and control of the Lakshadweep Police.

■ Administration Secretariat is in Kavaratti.

■ The union territory comes under the jurisdiction of the Kerala High Court at Kochi along with a system of lower courts.

■ The territory elects one member to the Lok Sabha.

■ According to the 2011 census Lakshadweep has a population of 64,429, roughly equal in number to that of the Marshall Islands.

■ This gives it a ranking of 627th among the 640 districts in India.

■ The district has a population density of 2,013 inhabitants per square kilometre (5,210/sq mi).

■ Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 6.23%.

■ Lakshadweep has a sex ratio of 946 females for every 1000 males.

■ Lakshadweep has a literacy rate of 92.28%.

■ Most people of Lakshadweep are descendants of migrants from the Malabar Coast of southwest India and the islanders are ethnically similar to coastal Kerala's Malayali people.

■ The southernmost and second largest island of Minicoy has an ethnically Mahls population that are native to the Maldives.

■ The inhabitants of Lakshadweep are known to practice different religious customs that were once propounded by the Saint Ubaidullah who is believed to be the propagator of Islam religion in Lakshadweep

■ In Lakshadweep 93% population is Muslim, only 4% people is Hindu and 3% people believes on other religion.

■ There are several festivals that have originated in the island of Lakshadweep to mark the eminence of Islam.

■ Moulood is one such religious event when the islanders offer prayers to the divine power and eat in groups.

■ The festival of Ratheeb is another uncommon occasion which originated in the Kavaratti region of Lakshadweep.

■ The Sunni branch of Islam is the predominant faith.

■ The principal languages of Lakshadweep are Malayalam, Jeseri (Dweep Bhasha) and Mahl.

■ Languages of Lakshadweep as 2001 census Malayalam (85.00%) and others (15.00%)

■ The people of all the northern islands speak a dialect of Malayalam with Tamil and Arabic similar to Arwi influenced by extensive trade activities of these people.

■ The people of Minicoy, the southernmost atoll, speak Mahl, a variant of  Divehi language spoken in the Maldives.

■ Malayalam with Malayalam script was introduced as the official language of Lakshadweep during the British raj.

■ Previously a type of Arabic script (Arabi Malayalam) was used for the language.

■ The policy was continued by the Indian government.

■ Malayalam serves as a link language on the islands including on the Mahl dominated Minicoy Island.

■ The dances here include:-Lava Dance, Kolkali dance & Parichakli Dance.

■ Lakshadweep's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at US$ 60 million at current prices.

■ There is little economic inequality in Lakshadweep and the poverty index is low.

■ Coconut fibre extraction and production of fibre products is Lakshadweep's main industry.

■ Lakshadweep comprises the only coral atolls of the country.

■ With a vast lagoon of 4,200 km², it has territorial waters of 20,000 km², Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 4,00,000 Lakhs km² and coastal line of about 132 km.

■ There is an estimation of about one lakh tonnes of tuna and tuna like fishes and about an equal quantity of shark in the sea around Lakshadweep.

■ Fishing is the main livelihood of the islanders.

■ The resultant product, known as `mas`, are popular products exported from these islands to southeast Asian countries.

■ Due to its isolation and scenic appeal, Lakshadweep was already known as a tourist attraction for Indians since 1974. 

■ This brings in significant revenue, which is likely to increase.

■ Since such a small region cannot support industries, the government is actively promoting tourism as a means of income in Bangaram and Kadmat islands.

■ Bangaram is projected as a major destination for international tourism.

■ Marine fauna are plentiful.

■ Water sports activities such as scuba diving, wind surfing, snorkelling, surfing, kayaking, canoeing, water skiing, sportfishing, yachting and night-voyages into the sea are quite popular activities among tourists.

■ Tourists flock to these islands throughout the year, except during the South-west monsoon months when seas are extremely rough.

 

Desalination A low-temperature thermal desalination plant opened on Kavaratti in 2005, at a cost of 50 million (€922,000). The experimental plant, which uses the temperature difference between warm surface seawater and much colder seawater at 500m depth to generate potable water as well as energy, was slated to produce 100,000 litres/day of potable water from seawater. Production costs in 2005 were 220-250/m³ (€4.1-4.6/m³); the cost was supposed to drop to 30-60/m³ (€0.55-1.11/m³) with increased capacity. The technology was developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology. It can be used to produce drinking water and also for power generation and air conditioning. In addition, the deep seawater contains extra nutrients for fish, an important source of food and income for the local population. The government plans to set up desalination plants with a capacity of 10 million litres/per day on all islands and coastal areas. In 2009, the NIOT announced plans to build plants on Minicoy, Agatti and Andrott.

■ Agatti Aerodrome on Agatti Island is the only airport in Lakshadweep.

■ Tourists need a permit to visit the islands; foreign nationals are not permitted to visit certain islands.

■ According to the current alcohol laws of India, alcoholic beverage consumption is not permitted in the Lakshadweep Archipelago except on Bangaram Island.

Pamban Islands:

■ Pamban Island also known as Rameswaram Island

■ Pamban Island is an island located between peninsular India and Sri Lanka.

■ The Island is a part of India and forms Rameswaram taluk of Ramanathapuram district of the state of Tamil Nadu.

■ Principal town in the island is the pilgrimage centre of Rameswaram.

■ Pamban Island is situated between 9°11' N and 9°19' N latitude and 79°12' E to 79°23' E longitudes.

■ The chain formed by Pamban Island, the shoals of Adam's Bridge, and Mannar Island of Sri Lanka separate Palk Bay and the Palk Strait in the northeast from the Gulf of Mannar in the southwest.

■ Pamban Island extends for around 30 kilometres in width from the township of Pamban in the west to the remains of Dhanushkodi towards the south-east.

■ The length of the island varies from 2 kilometres at the Dhanushkodi promontory to 7 kilometres near Rameswaram. The area of the island is around 67 square km.

■ Pamban Island constitutes a separate taluk of Ramanathapuram district with four administrative divisions: Okarisalkulam, Mahindi, Pamban and Rameswaram.

■ There are two administrative villages: Pamban and Rameswaram.

■ The two main towns on Pamban Island are Pamban and Rameswaram.

■ There are also smaller settlements upon the island like Thangachimadam.

■ The taluk headquarters is at Rameswaram.

■ There are railway stations at Pamban and Rameswaram.

■ Rameswaram with a population of 38,035 (2001 census) is the largest and most populous town on the island.

■ It is one of the most sacred Hindu religious sites and a pilgrimage destination for thousands of Hindus every year.

■ The Ramanathaswamy Temple at Rameswaram has the longest corridor in Asia.

■ Rameswaram is situated at the centre of the island, around 11 kilometres from the township of Pamban and 18 kilometres from Dhanushkodi.

■ Pamban, situated at the western edge of Pamban Island, is a fishing village and a harbor which is the main point of entry for the pilgrimage centre of Rameswaram.

■ It has a population of around 9,000 inhabitants.

■ Its importance has enhanced because it is located at the eastern end of Pamban Bridge through which supplies enter the island.

■ Pamban is 11 kilometres from Rameswaram, 30 kilometres from the tip of Dhanushkodi and around 7 kilometres from Mandapam on the Indian mainland.

■ It is separated from the Indian mainland by a narrow strip of sea.

■ Thangachi Madam situated between Pamban and Rameswaram is a minor settlement.

■ It derives its name from a mutt (Madam) which is located in the town.

■ There are a couple of temples and a few churches.

■ The township is also served by a police station.

■ Ekantharamar Temple constructed and maintained by the Kanchi mutt is the main attraction here.

Dhanushkodi, at the eastern tip of the island, a harbour and a pilgrimage centre, was washed away by the December 1964 cyclone. Prior to its destruction it was a flourishing township and a prominent place of pilgrimage. In its heyday, it rivalled Rameswaram in size and population. However, the 22 December 1964 cyclone destroyed the town in its entirety claiming over 2,000 lives and crippling power supply and communications. Houses, temples, churches, dispensaries and dharmashalas were destroyed leaving nothing but a ghost town. Some of the dharmashalas and a prominent mutt based in Dhanushkodi have been moved to Rameswaram. But Dhanushkodi could never be rebuilt. Dhanushkodi was well connected by rail and road with Pamban and the mainland until the cyclone struck. The ruins of the station and the railway track have been left untouched thereby making the Ghost-town a popular tourist destination.

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